Translation Strategies

Abstract Considering translation has a strong effect on various audiences, several researchers have come out to explore the appropriate manner of translating audio-visual contents into subtitles.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Translation Strategies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This study sums up the findings of such researchers, through a keen focus on the movie Bad boys two and comprehensively, it articulates that, for producers to write the best subtitles, they ought to ensure that the translation made has the same effect in the target culture as it does in the original source culture. The best translators factor cultural variations when translating audio contents of a movie into another language. The study further establishes that, the best translators are those who can easily expose the relevance of the initial message (through a second language) without creating any sort of misunderstanding. The concept of domestication therefore easily surfaces in this context because it is the best way translators can portray the same audio content into a second language without stirring any controversy. However, to successfully translate given audio pieces, it is important for translators to remain as natural as possible. This fact therefore means that there is a small line between what is right and appropriate. Introduction Subtitles are normally used to make television audiences who have a language comprehension or hearing problem to understand what is being said on televisions. Normally, a target audience in this context is children, adults, deaf people or people who cannot understand the language being spoken (Nida, 1982). With the upsurge of DVD productions, the use of subtitles in televisions programming and movies have significantly increased (Venuti, 1995). However, the development of subtitles for any movie or television series serves the purpose of a given cultural, religious or educational context and it may therefore be tricky for most television producers to serve the needs of these target audiences, considering the dynamism of such groups (in terms of religious and cultural identification) (Nida and De Waard, 1986).Advertising Looking for dissertation on languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For instance, the translation of offensive language remains a tricky issue for most television producers because such language is sometimes considered profanity or inappropriate for certain cultures. Normally, such (offensive) language is used to express specific human emotions such as anger, amusement, surprise (and the likes) but its appropriateness relies on the culture of the target audience. Diaz-Cintas Remael (2007) reiterate that â€Å"taboo words are tied in with local traditions which are used differently by different linguistic communities, depending on the religious background of those com munities† (p. 196). To a great extent, swear words are unique to the cultural context of a given community because these words have various meanings when analyzed in various cultural contexts (Baker, 1998). Interestingly, such words can even sound more offensive for certain cultural groups than it was initially meant to be. The confusion in language translation can be explained from the translation of the English words â€Å"Fuck you† because if it is translated to Arabic, it would mean â€Å"Damn you† (Venuti, 1995). Normally, this is observed in most Arabic translations that include sexual terms because Islam greatly prohibits the use of sexual terms (Brockopp, 2003, p. 69). Regardless of the dynamics of translation, observers note that, the use of translation in movies play a crucial role in the understanding of such works because of concerns regarding the quality of audio-visual contents of some movie productions (De and Kay, 1999). Swear words also have a si gnificant impact on the character that uses it and in the same manner; characters also have a significant impact on the message of the film. This relationship shows that, the accuracy of translation to subtitles cannot be overemphasized (Fang, 2010, p. 35). It is therefore essential to use swear words for character representation. Due to this fact, some translators normally decide to render the swear words, but knowingly or unknowingly to them, rendering swear words may consequently distort the message of the film (Gambier, 1998). However, translators normally experience a challenge rendering spoken words into subtitles because it is almost impossible to render everything that is said into the subtitles (Dà ­az-Cintas and Remael, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Translation Strategies specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These facts abound, this study seeks to analyze how the subtitles to the movie Bad boys two can be translated into Arabic. Comprehensively, this study seeks to establish the translation style used to translate the subtitles of the movies to Arabic and the possible challenges that maybe experienced from the process. Methodology The research methodology will be focused on gathering relevant data from the Bad Boys two script, to gain a thorough understanding of the difficulties experienced when translating English swear words into Arabic. In this context, this study aims at shedding some light regarding if the foreignization or domestication strategy is used to translate English curse words to Arabic. In ascertaining this fact, questions such as, what impact would the foreignzation strategy have on an Arabic audience? And what impact would the domestication strategy have on Arabic audience? will be answered. The data chosen for this analytical piece is the script for an American popular drama film, Bad Boys two, released in 2003. The script will be comprehensively u sed to evaluate how it could be translated into Arabic so that appropriate translation strategies can be established. The complexities in the translation of the swear words will therefore be easily established through a thorough analysis of the script. In this manner, swear words used in the script will be used to portray the difficulty or complexity of translating the words into Arabic. However, only the first part of the script will be of use. The analysis will be done in qualitative and quantitative means so that the challenges experienced when translating English swear words into Arabic can be exposed. To gain a comprehensive picture of the translation process, a thorough discussion will be done to establish alternative ways of translating the English swear words into Arabic. Discussion Translating swear words can be a very difficult task. More so, the challenge is normally experienced when one is to translate words which do not exist in the context of another culture. For examp le, in the second page of the Bad Boys two script, the word â€Å"motherfuckers† is used to refer to a group of people.Advertising Looking for dissertation on languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the context of the Arabic culture, such a word does not exist. In the same page, one of the characters uses the word â€Å"fuck† to refer to a poor status of radio transmission. Such a word does not also exist in the Arabic context. In fact, it can be very challenging to translate English words into Arabic, using appropriate reference materials such as dictionaries (because they only include words which are well established in the Arabic dialect) (Omar, 2009). Often, translating words into Arabic is more challenging than translating the same words into other languages, say, Spanish. This fact is true because the Arabic culture has a strong Islamic influence which prohibits the use of offensive language (Auroux, 2000, p. 333). In other words, Islam greatly limits the dynamism of Arabic culture because it does not include words and language dialects which are against its teachings. Interestingly, swear words fall into the category of highly inhibited words and therefore tran slators may find themselves in difficult situations where they have to translate specific cultural words which do not exist in the Arabic dialect in the first place. Sometimes, when such challenges are experienced, it is important for the translators to maintain the meaning of the English words and provides an alternative meaning behind it. This strategy is especially recommended when certain English words do not have their Arabic equivalent (Omar, 2009). For example in the second page of the Bad Boys two script, one character asks â€Å"The fuck I want to do that for?† Providing a meaning for this sentence in the Arabic context is difficult and therefore, a translator may be forced to find an alternative way to express it. In the same page, a character says â€Å"stop all the goddamned movement†. It would also be very difficult to translate the same statement in the Arabic context and therefore it is important to find an alternative meaning. The difficulty in translat ing swears words into Arabic are especially noted when focusing on the context of translation. In other words, it can be easy to translate the swear words into Arabic but doing so requires a keen focus on the context used to translate the words. For example in the second page of the bad boy’s two script, one character says â€Å"but this shit will get worked out in court†. In the following page, the same character says â€Å"He goes to bed early for this shit†. In the same page, another character says â€Å"I did not do shit!† In the three examples, the context in which the word â€Å"shit† is used changes to refer to an object and event and therefore translating the same curse word in different sentences to give different meanings may prove difficult. In the first page of the Bad Boys two script, the word â€Å"Fucking bitches† is used to represent a non-derogative context but the word â€Å"fucking bitch† would often be used to refe r to a sexual context. The same is not the case when analyzed in the context it was used in the first segment of the study. For instance, the word was used in an apologetic context because it was preceded by â€Å"sorry Johnny† in reference to the shooting of a gun. Comprehensively it was a response to the apologetic tone adopted by the previous speaker. This fact can be supported by the fact that, there was no sexual context being referred to by the speaker. Instead, the speaker was only referring to the character of the respondent. However in translating the contextual meaning of the word â€Å"fucking bitches† into Arabic may prove a difficult task for a translator because in conventional English speaking contexts the words would also be used to refer to a sexual context. In Arabic, the same would also be assumed but this is not the case. Also, in the first page of the script, one of the characters says â€Å" I cannot see shit† When the assertion is analyzed at face-value, many people would assume the character referred to â€Å"seeing shit† as an object, but in real sense, he was referring to the fact that, he could not see anything. In the same context, the character says, â€Å"take that shit†. In this context, the character refers to â€Å"shit† as an object (contrary to the previous examples). In the next sentence, the author says â€Å"I am out of here- shit†. From the use of the word â€Å"shit† in previous contexts, we can see that the word has been used to refer to different situations, but in the last example, the word has been used to refer to a situation. This means that, in three consecutive sentences, the word shit has been used as an object and a situation. Translating the same word to suit these contexts is therefore a difficult task. In such contexts, translators find themselves in a difficult position of maintaining the context of the swear words and still maintain a correct characte r representation. One of the strategies suggested to go about the situation is modifying the contextual meaning to correct a wrong contextual meaning (Omar, 2009). This translation is suggested because it is normally assumed that the translator has an ethical role in translation which must be upheld always. However, it is also established that, it is a wrong thing for translators to modify the context of source texts. In other words, translators should remain as faithful to the contextual meaning of the text. In such a case, it is important to understand the dilemma and look for other alternative areas of translation determination such as the availability of an alternative Arabic word which best conveys the meaning and context of the English swear words. If such words exist, it is best to include them in the translation but if they do not, it is also best to omit such words instead of changing their contextual meaning. For example, it would be difficult to translate the word â€Å" motherfucker†, which is used in the sentence, â€Å"just to wake up to pop one in a motherfucker† (found in the third page of the script). In such a scenario, it is best to omit such a word. The same omission can be applied in the sentence â€Å"Motherfucker shot me in the ass† (found in the third page of the script). According to the Western theory of translation, translators should often maintain the context of the source material as much as possible (Chan, 2004, p. 34). The theory also notes that the greater the context or metaphase that exists between English and language, the greater the ratio of metaphases to paraphrase that can be used in the entire context of translation. However, in as much as the theory notes that, translators should maintain the contextual meaning of the source material, the theory also notes that the role of the translators should not only be limited to a mechanical and passive role because the theory notes that, translators are like artists who also have a right to be as creative as they can be (Chan, 2004, p. 34). Nonetheless, it is also important to note that, translation is an unique art because it is not as simple as conventional art. Wiecha (2010) notes that in the art of translation, the translators should emphasize a lot on the frequency of swear words used because he notes that when too many swear words are used, it may be offensive to Arabic audiences and in such a case, he proposes that the translator should reduce the frequency of swear words used or even in some cases, polish these words, or formalize them in a way that captures the source meaning as much as possible. In the third page of the Bad Boys two script, one character says, â€Å"That shit is fucking annoying† and in the next sentence he says, â€Å"Like a fucking gnat at a barbecue†¦.just bugging the fuck out of me†. These sentences represent a series of swear words which can be highly offensive and difficult to translat e in the Arabic culture. It is in this context that translators are advised to reduce the frequency of such swear words. Moreover translators are advised that, when they come across many curse words, they should use their own discretion to reduce these words or alternatively mention that, there are several curse words used by the actors to represent a state of anger (Wiecha, 2010). Nonetheless, the problem noted with such a strategy is diffusing the intrigue of the film because to some people, the swear words used, represent the punch-line of the conversation. However, in the Arabic context, or even in the spirit of professionalism, it is important for the translator to consider the ethical and cultural implications of translation before intrigue. In the second page of the bad boy script, the use of the words â€Å"shit† is used more than two times (in sequence). A sentence later, the word â€Å"motherfucker† is used. This sequence in the use of swears words can someti mes be perceived as too much for Arabic audiences, especially those of the older generation. And when analyzed in the words of Nida (2003), it is important for the translator at this point to omit such words, or not represent their equivalents because of the frequency used. The main motivation for undertaking this approach is to show respect for the target audience’s language and culture. Translating the English swear words into Arabic is also not easy for translators at this point of analysis because Arabic is not consistent in dialect form. This means that, there are many Arabian dialects, accents, registers and styles which can often be confusing for the translator. Due to this reason, it is often recommended that, translators willing to translate words from English into Arabic need to adopt the domestication strategy to ensure they remain relevant to their Arabic audiences (because of their dynamism). Part of the reason the domestication strategy is recommended is because it is often common for translators to change the meaning of the swear words if they use the foreignization strategy (Fang, 2010, p. 35). Also in the domestication strategy, the translator is often invisible to the audience but in the foreignization strategy, the translator is visible to the audience. This is true because translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to bring the audience to their side while translators who adopt the domestication strategy shift their points of view to the audience. In other words, proponents of the domestication strategy note that, it is important for translators to change the source material into the context of the target language. In the third page of Bad boys two script we see the importance of adopting the domestication strategy because in some instances, the use of curse words are used in the religious context which can be very offending to Arabic audiences. For instance, the words â€Å"spiritual bullshit† is used to refer to a spiritual sense of well being of one character but the speaker is not religious in any manner and therefore he refers to the spiritual reference as â€Å"bull shit†. This reference may be assumed to be derogative to religion but the situation may be worse when analyzed in the Arabic context because such swear words may be assumed to disregard Islam. Also, the assertion â€Å"son of a bitch† (found in the eighth page of the script) would be difficult to translate in Arabic and therefore, a domestication strategy would be appropriate. The same can be said of the statement â€Å"shit! I need backup† (found in the eight page of the script). The adoption of a domestication strategy therefore seems appropriate in such a context because it has been affirmed that in the Arabic context, domestication improves the understandability of the audience (Fang, 2010, p. 35). This fact was affirmed after several studies were done to gauge the use of the foreignization and domest ication strategies when English texts were translated into Arabic. It was affirmed that when foreignization strategy was adopted, the readers experienced a lot of difficulty trying to understand the meaning of the words used, but when the domestication strategy was used, the readers found the texts more understandable. Moreover, instances of misunderstandings were greatly reduced in the domestication strategy as opposed to the foreignization strategy (Fang, 2010, p. 35). However, it should also be noted that translating swear words into English is not only subject to contextual and comprehension problems because lexical and grammatical rule problems also surface as a result (Wahba, 2006, p. 366). In other words, it is often evidenced that, there are several grammatical constructs that are poorly understood when English swear words are translated into Arabic. In other words, when translating English swear words into Arabic, it is often not clear which grammatical rules to use, or whi ch words should be used to describe them. For instance translating the sentence â€Å"some fucking punk thinks he can die in my club† into Arabic poses some grammatical and lexical challenges in the same manner the sentence â€Å"I wonder whose shit they are about to rip now?† (found in the seventh page of the bad boys two script) poses. This fact is evidenced from the fact that, English and Arabic do not share any origins or rule for that matter. In other words, very little technical or scientific learning is normally evidenced in most literature excerpts have a rooting in Arabic. This is also the major reason why there is usually a shortage of equivalent words in Arabic from English translations. In such situations, it is recommended that, translators be extra creative to develop or custom English curse words into Arabic terms (Fang, 2010, p. 35). This is the same strategy noted when translating English technical words into Arabic because transliteration is often use d by researchers to explain Arabic equivalents of English words. However, this is part of the reason why it is very difficult to establish standards used in explaining English swear words into Arabic. The emphasis on translation cannot be overemphasized enough because it is observed that in the Arabic dialect, there are many ways to express a message. This is true because Arabic dialects are highly expressive and therefore determining the locale of the target audience goes a long way in determining the best way to translate words from English to Arabic. Also, it is established that machine translations do not often work in the Arabic context because their meanings may be misunderstood in the various Arabic dialects. For instance if the sentence â€Å" do not understand what the fuck you mean (found in the fourth page of the script) were to be translated in a machine-like way, the meaning would be lost because â€Å"fuck† would imply something sexual but this is not the case. In the same page of the script, the sentence â€Å"†¦that is some cult shit† is also found and translating the same sentence in a machine-like manner would imply the inclusion of human waste into the analysis which is not the case. This situation is further compounded by the fact that, there are very few experts in Arabic language who can give a proper insight into the best way to translate English swear words into Arabic. These dynamics are very important in determining the best way to translate English curse words into Arabic because it is affirmed that having the correct knowledge about a target language goes a long way in enabling translators know the best way to translate English curse words into Arabic. Conclusion Translating English curse words into Arabic is marred by a lot of linguistic grammatical and cultural barriers. The grammatical barriers are evidenced because of the exclusion of Arabic in the formulation of technical, scientific or curse words. This fac t creates a big problem for translators because many fail to find the best equivalent of the English swear words in Arabic. The cultural barriers are especially evidenced because of the strictness and influence of religion in the Arabic dialect. This is the basis why translators have to be very keen on translating curse words into Arabic so that they do not offend the target audience. Comprehensively, this study establishes that, the problems encountered when translating English curse words into Arabic can fall into four broad categories as explained below: Problems Action Contextual Omit and find alternative words Grammatical and lexical Reconstruct sentence Lack of alternative meaning Find closest meaning Comprehension Find closest meaning or omit The linguistic hurdles come from the probability of wrongly understanding the context of the curse words in their Arabic form. Due to these facts, a domestication strategy seems the most appropriate way of going about trans lating English curse words into Arabic. References Auroux, S. (2000). History of the Language Sciences: An International Handbook On  The Evolution of the Study of Language from the Beginnings to the Present, Volume 2. New York: Walter de Gruyter. Baker, M. (1998). Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London and New York: Routledge. Brockopp, J. (2003). Islamic Ethics of Life: Abortion, War, and Euthanasia. South Carolina: Univ of South Carolina Press. Chan, T. (2004). Twentieth-Century Chinese Translation Theory: Modes, Issues And  Debates. London: John Benjamins Publishing Company. De L. Z., and Kay, N. (1999). The Semiotics of Subtitling. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Diaz-Cintas, J., and Remael, A. (2007). Media for all: subtitling for the  deaf, audio description, and sign language. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Dà ­az-Cintas, J., and Remael, A. (2009). Audiovisual Translation: Subtitling. Manchester, UK: St. Jerome Pub. Fang, L. (2010). Translation Theories ¡Ã‚ ¡a nd ¡Ã‚ ¡film Translating in China. New York: Academic Press Corporation. Gambier, Y. (1998). Translating for the Media. Papers from the International  Conferences: Languages the Media. November 22, 23.1996. Berlin: University of Turku. Nida, E. A. (1982).The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Nida, E. A., and De Waard, J. (1986). One Language to another: Functional  equivalence in Bible Translating, Nashville: Thomas Nelson. Nida, E. (2003). The Theory and Practice of Translation. New York: Brill. Omar, H. (2009).The Sustainability of the Translation Field. New York: ITNM. Venuti, L. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. London and New York: Routledge. Wahba, K. (2006). Handbook for Arabic Language Teaching Professionals in The 21st  Century. London: Routledge. Wiecha, K. (2010). Swearing and Dialect: On the Example of British English Dialects. New York: GRIN Verlag. This dissertation on Translation Strategies was written and submitted by user Eva Ross to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Chemistry Coursework Essay Example

Chemistry Coursework Essay Example Chemistry Coursework Essay Chemistry Coursework Essay The reactivity series is a chart showing the order that metals react with other substances. This reactivity series was determined by carrying out experiments to see how each metal reacts. The reactions are done with air, water and dilute acid.The reactivity series:Potassium (k)Sodium (Na)Calcium (Cl)Magnesium (Mg)Aluminum (Al)(Carbon)Zinc (Zn)Iron (Fe)Lead (Pb)(Hydrogen)Copper (Cu)Silver (Ag)Gold (Au)Platinum (Pt)Metals extracted by electrolysis.Metals extracted by using reduction with carbon (carbon monoxide)These metals dont react with water or acid.Exothermic and Endothermic reactions:In an exothermic reaction heat is given OUT. An exothermic reaction is one which gives out energy to the surroundings, usually in the form of heat and usually shown by a rise in temperature. For example burning fuels obviously gives out heat making it exothermic.In an endothermic reaction heat is taken IN. An endothermic reaction is one which takes in energy from the surroundings, usually in the form of heat and usually shown in a fall of temperature. For example dissolving certain salts in water.During a chemical reaction old bonds are broken and new ones are made.Energy must be supplied to break bonds so this is an ENDOTHERMIC process.Energy releasedNa Cl Na + ClStrong bond Bond brokenEnergy is released when new bonds are formed so this is an EXOTHERMIC process.Mg + O Mg O + energyIf the energy released in bond formation is greater than the energy used in breaking old bonds, the reaction is EXOTHERMIC.If the energy required to break old bonds is greater than the energy released when the bonds are formed, the reaction is ENDOTHERMIC.Enthalpy profilesENDOTHERMICExothermicTheoryThe reactivity of a metal is related to how easily it can lose its outer shell electronsM-2e MThe more reactive the metal he easier this process is so it takes less energy. All of the displacement reactions are exothermic reactions so the Energy going out is larger than the energy coming in. The enthalpy profiles show the energy coming in (1), the energy out (2) and how exothermic/endothermic the overall reaction was (2)-(1)=(3).The energy being taken in is the energy required to break the bonds + the energy required to do: M-2e M .The energy coming out is the energy from the forming bonds + energy from: Cu +2e Cu.Most of these energies stay the same because the metals are displacing copper. The only significant change as I add the different metals will be the energy it takes to do M-2e M . Therefore the most reactive metal will need less energy to remove electrons.Key Factors/VariablesKey factors or variables can be changed that would make a difference to the reactions or results taking place. These are:; Amount of copper sulphate solution-use more or less. It needs to be in a certain amount as it could either be too dangerous or not cause a good reaction; Moles of metal-this might change the speed of the reaction or the amount of heat given off.; Type of solution-using a different solution could make the reactions stronger or weaker.; Type of metal-using different types of metals could show more results.; Different concentration of solution (stronger/weaker); Whether it is stirred- could change the speed of the reactionPredictionI think that given the information I know I would guess that magnesium would let out the most thermal energy because it is the most reactive metal I am experimenting with. The higher the metal in the reactivity series the higher the amount of thermal energy given out.PreliminaryMethod:A 50th of a mole of magnesium, iron, lead and zinc was measured out. The temperature of the copper sulphate was taken before any experiments were started. Then 10cm3 of solution was put into 3 different test tubes and the metals were added. The concentrations were stirred and a thermometer was placed in each test tube and the highest temperature was taken and recorded. The experiment was repeated 2 more times so an average could be taken for accuracy.Fa ir TestTo make sure that the experiments done are fair these things need to be taken into consideration:; Same amount of moles of metal.; Same amount of concentration of copper sulphate.; Same amount of times stirred.; Same concentration (copper sulphate).; Same metals (zinc, magnesium, iron and lead); The temperature of the room where the experiments are taking place.; The starting temperature of the thermometers.Do more reactive metals give more exothermic reactions in their displacement reactions with copper sulphate solution less reactive metals?Aim: To investigate if the reactivity of a metal affects how exothermic its reaction with copper sulphate solution (displacement reaction).Apparatus; 12 boiling tubes; Scales; Spatula; Calculator; Powdered Lead (s), Magnesium (s), Zinc (s), Iron (s); 3 Thermometers; Copper sulphate (aq) solution.; Measuring cylinder.; Test tube rackMethod1/50th of a mole of each metal was measured out. 12 boiling tubes were put out in test tube racks eac h with 10cm3 of copper sulphate solution in. Before any of the experiments were taken out the temperature of the solutions were taken. Then 4.14g (1/50th of a mole) of lead were added to the copper sulphate solution. The solution was stirred 5 times. The highest temperature was taken. Then 0.48g (1/50th of a mole) of magnesium were added to the solution and stirred 5 times, the highest temperature was taken. Then 1.12g (1/50th of a mole) of iron were added and stirred 5 times, the highest temperature was taken. The same was done with 1.3g (1/50th of a mole) of zinc. All of the temperatures were recorded. All of the experiments were repeated two more times for accurate readings.Workings out:Lead: Iron:Mass number = 207 Mass number = 561/50th = 1?50 = 50 1/50th = 1?50 = 50207?50 = 4.14g 56?50 = 1.12gMagnesium: Zinc:Mass number = 24 Mass number = 651/50th = 1?50 = 50 1/50th = 1?50 = 5024?50 = 0.48g 65?50 = 1.3gResults:Lead:21 21 21 Starting temp22 25 23 Highest tempBoiling tube 1 Boi ling tube 2 Boiling tube 3Magnesium:21 21 21 Starting temp87 82 83 Highest tempBoiling tube 1 Boiling tube 2 Boiling tube 3Iron:21 22 21 Starting temp35 33 31 Highest tempBoiling tube 1 Boiling tube 2 Boiling tube 3Zinc:22 21 22 Starting temp56 55 58 Highest tempBoiling tube 1 Boiling tube 2 Boiling tube 3Results table:Start temperature?CTemperature after?CMetal123Avr?C123Avr?CMg21?C21?C21?C21?C87?C82?C83?C84?CPb21?C21?C21?C21?C22?C25?C23?C23?CFe21?C22?C21?C21?C35?C33?C31?C33?CZn22?C21?C22?C22?C56?C55?C58?C56?CChange of temperature?T = change in temperature?T = end of temperature start temperatureMg = 84-21 = ?T 63à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cPb = 23 21 = ?T 2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cFe = 33 21 = ?T 12à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cZn = 56 22 = ?T 34à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cWorkings outMass of Mg = 0.48g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 10g (mass of the copper sulphate) = 4.8gMass of Pb = 4.14g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 10g (mass of the copper sulphate) = 41.4gMass of Zn = 1.3g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 10g (mass of the copper sulphate) = 13.0gMass of Fe = 1.12g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 10g (mass of the copper sulphate) = 11.2g?Q = m à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Cp à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ ?TMg = 10.48g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 4.2 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 63à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cPb = 14.14g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 4.2 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 2à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cZn = 11.3g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 4.2 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 12à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cFe = 11.12g à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 4.2 à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 34à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½cMetalQ (J)MgPbZnFe1270.08347.761856.4560.448AnalysisWhen doing my test there were some things that went wrong. When I poured in my metals, because I had already put the copper sulphate in the boiling tubes the metals stuck to the side, which may have ruined my results. If all of the metal was included in the experiment then a higher reading may have been taken. If I were to do this test again I would use a funnel to put the metals inside the boiling tubes or use bigger boiling tubes.The boiling tubes lose heat through the glass. To make it a fairer test next time I should use polystyrene or cotton wool to wrap around the test tube this way not much heat should escape.When doing my e xperiments I only repeated the tests 3 times to get a reading it would be better if I had dine the experiment about 5 times then I would have been able to get more of a accurate result.Luckily when I did my tests I didnt get any odd results. All of my results were about the same the only difference was a few degrees.

How Long is the ACT with Extended Time

How Long is the ACT with Extended Time SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Students with documented disabilities who would like extended time on the ACT can request one of two options: National Extended Time, which entails 50% additional time, or Special Testing, which varies by student, includes more than time and a half, and tends to take place over multiple testing days. This guide will take a deeper look at the options for extended time on the ACT, and how long the test-taking experience is for students with these accommodations. To begin, who qualifies for extra time? Who Qualifies for Extended Time on the ACT? In order to qualify for extended time on the ACT, students must have a documented disability. Usually students will have an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or 504 plan at school, though this alone doesn't automatically qualify them for ACT accommodations. A school coordinator will have to make the request, making sure to specify the accommodation needed and provide in depth documentation. Processing takes about four weeks, so requests should be made early. If the request is denied for some reason, it's possible to appeal - another good reason to apply as early as possible! Eligible students may have documented learning disabilities, ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, or medical conditions. Whatever the reason, these students will benefit from having extra time on the test, whether it be the 50% National Extended Time or a greater time allowance with Special Testing. Let's take a look at the differences in testing schedules between these two options. How Long is the ACT with Time and a Half? Without extended time, the ACT lasts 2 hours and 55 minutes, or 3 hours and 35 minutes with the optional 40 minute essay. The sections are always given in the order of English, Math, Reading, and Science, with the choice of the essay at the end of the test. With time and a half, students are allowed 5 hours for the ACT without Writing and 6 hours for the ACT with Writing. They receive the sections in the same order, but with one important difference: students with National Extended Time are allowed to self-pace throughout the test. Instead of having to stick to a certain section, they can distribute their time as they like between English, Math, Reading, and Science. Students not taking the essay have 5 full hours to complete these sections as best fits their test-taking style. In this way, this accommodation both eases the intense time pressure of the ACT and helps students choose how to divide their time most effectively. Extended time does not necessarily mean extended or extra breaks. If students need more than the typical 10 minute break after Reading and 5 minute break before the essay, then they will have to make a separate request for this. Students taking the ACT with 50% additional time will test at a national test center on an official testing date (a Saturday morning). Given the additional time, what will their test day schedule look like? Test day will have an early start. Test Day Schedule with Time and a Half Unless students arrange to have an alternative testing date for religious reasons, they'll take the ACT on a Saturday morning at a national testing center (often, but not always, their own high school). Students are typically required to be at the testing room by 8:00 AM. I would advise getting there by 7:45 at the latest! Doors close at 8:00, and latecomers won't be admitted. The test itself begins between 8:30 and 9:00, since it takes time for proctors to check everyone in, get them seated, distribute materials, and have students fill out their biographical information on the scantrons. Once all the logistics are wrapped up, the test will begin! Students without accommodations are typically dismissed around 12:15 (or 1:15 with the essay). Students with time and a half, on the other hand, will be dismissed around 2:30 (or 3:30 with Writing). Their time for check in and set up may be reduced, since they usually take the test in a small group of no more than 10 students in an extended time testing room. While time and a half is the most common time-based accommodation, Special Testing is also granted to some students. This additional time alters both the schedule and the location of the ACT. Location change for students with Special Testing! How Long is the ACT with Special Testing? Instead of testing on Saturday morning at the designated testing center, students who qualify for Special Testing and more than 50% additional time will test at their school. They'll take the ACT over the course of two or more days under the supervision of a staff member. The ACT will either be administered individually or in a small group of students with similar accommodations. While Special Testing extended time options vary, the most common is 100% additional time. In this case, students would take a single ACT section per school day before returning to their regular classes. Spreading the test out like this can be especially helpful for students with attentional issues, plus it gives students the chance to prepare specifically for each section the night before they take it. All in all, students with 100% extended time would have 90 minutes for the English section, 2 hours for Math, and 70 minutes each for Reading and Science. That adds up to a total of 5 hours and 50 minutes spread out over 4 days, or 7 hours and 10 minutes with the essay. Since students with Special Testing take the ACT at school, they don't necessarily share a specific testing date. Instead, they just have to complete all testing within one of the 3 week testing windows listed on the accommodations request form. For 2015 to 2016, these windows are September 12 - October 4, 2015 October 24 - November 15, 2015 December 12 - January 3, 2016 February 6 - February 28, 2016 April 9 - May 1, 2016, and June - July 3, 2016. Because they have some more flexibility in testing dates, students with Special Testing should register for the time that best fits with their schedules and any college deadlines. Apart from 100% or more additional time, Special Testing may include alternate accommodations like braille, DVDs, or a computer for essays. Students applying for accommodations do so for all different reasons and to support all different needs. To best meet their needs and improve their ACT experience, students, parents, and school coordinators should start planning early for time extensions, as well as determine exactly what accommodations they should request. Planning for Accommodations Extended time on the ACT can significantly help a student have a better test-taking experience and achieve a stronger score. The self-pacing option can be especially beneficial for a lot of students, as it reduces the stress of time pressure and allows them to divide the material as meets their needs. Since the approval process takes a while, and there's always the chance of getting denied and having to appeal, school coordinators should research accommodations, collect all the relevant documentation, and make their request as early as possible. By planning and preparing, coordinators can make sure students get the extended time they need through National Extended Time or Special Testing to perform their best on the ACT. What's Next? Are you deciding between the ACT and the SAT and wondering how extended time works on the SAT? Check out this article to see the options College Board offers (hint: more options, but no self-pacing). Exactly how long is each section of the ACT? Check out our expert guide on timing and pacing on the ACT. Rumor has it, the ACT has been getting more challenging and fast-paced over the past few years. Is this true or just hearsay? Read more about these claims that the ACT has been getting consistently harder in recent years. Disappointed with your ACT scores? Want to improve your ACT score by 4+ points? Download our free guide to the top 5 strategies you need in your prep to improve your ACT score dramatically. Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Tweet Rebecca Safier About the Author Rebecca graduated with her Master's in Adolescent Counseling from the Harvard Graduate School of Education. She has years of teaching and college counseling experience and is passionate about helping students achieve their goals and improve their well-being. She graduated magna cum laude from Tufts University and scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT. Get Free Guides to Boost Your SAT/ACT Get FREE EXCLUSIVE insider tips on how to ACE THE SAT/ACT. 100% Privacy. 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Pakistan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Pakistan - Research Paper Example Historically, Pakistan came under the rule of different rulers like the Mauryan Empire, which ruled for two hundred years before Christ (B.C). After this, Pakistan was conquered by the Kushan Empire. The area that is now Pakistan and India was always merged into one polity under all this different rulers who saw it as the best way to govern the Indian subcontinent (Kaplan 2). The area was characterized by two rivers; the Ganges River and the Indus River and their tributaries. The Indus River and its tributaries fall on the Pakistan side and the Indus with its tributaries fall on the Indian side, with the watershed running almost perfectly matching the border demarcation that separates the two countries. Earlier rulers, like the Kushans, never tried to demarcate the region into two separate entities unlike the British, Mughals and the Mauryans, who saw the need to group them under such entities (Kaplan 3). The source of Pakistan’s troubles could be attributed to the Muslim expe rience that Pakistan got under different Islamic warriors. Every successive conquest saw the area named as Pakistan today; being at the center of these conquered territories (Kaplan 1). One of the major capitals of the Mauryan Empire was Peshawar, which is a major city in today’s Pakistan. This further indicates that this region and Pakistan, as a whole, have had a long running history with Muslim influence (Kaplan 2). This does not imply that religion is the problem, in Pakistan, but an avenue used, by wrong elements, to act as a vessel for their objectives. Hurdles facing Pakistan can be linked to its history of being a frontier territory because it acted as a transition point for many cultures, religions and governments even in the medieval ages. There was the influence of religion and cultural diversity, from the Arab world and central Asia, on one side, and change of governments from the eastern frontier. It was made up of different socio-cultural elements, and with the dawn of the 20Th century, Pakistan did not inherit any form stable institutions that citizens believed in as was the case with neighboring India after Colonial rule (Kaplan 2). When Pakistan came into being, the majority of the country’s wealth existed in the Indus valley, which encompasses the Punjab state. It has the best irrigation fields and the river basin provided numerous resources business opportunities. The area was also on the trade routes used to trade with other neighboring regions like Afghanistan, China and Russia (New York Times 34). It has the best schools and the majority of females are educated unlike other parts of Pakistan like the Sindhi, Baluchistan and Pashtun states. This caused discontent to develop between the privileged state of Punjab and the rest of the country (Kaplan 3). This led to the development of strong ethnic authorities at the expense of government institutions that were lacking or were inefficient. Their different linguistic varieties st rengthened the animosity between different warring factions. This has left the country with Islamic idealism as the only attempt at unification which has fuelled Islamic extremism (Kaplan 4). The inhabitants of the Indus River valley complain that they are discriminated against as the only working portion of the population (Kaplan 4). Failed or failing state institutions are the

Critically Analyse the Evolving Role of Ports as Logistics Hubs in Essay

Critically Analyse the Evolving Role of Ports as Logistics Hubs in International Supply Chains - Essay Example Case Example - Role of Rotterdam Port as a Logistic Hub in International Supply Chain 10 Conclusion 13 References 14 Introduction Ports are often viewed as the geographical mediums which contribute to the business in any country. Ports facilitate to entice numerous trading activities within different nations. Ports not only act as a transport system, but also act as a medium of financial activity. Ports are logistic hubs which play a vital part in international business network (Lugt & Nijdam, 2005). Due to the continuous changes in global market context, the international business has changed significantly. Globalisation has eliminated numerous trade restrictions formerly imposed by the government of different countries which in turn has amplified the seaborne trade. The unprecedented growth of seaborne trade has generated huge impact on the logistics and global supply chain. The international supply chain has become quite multifaceted and this trend is stimulated by the demand of people all over the world. In line with the increasing change of demand, the logistics chains are changing continually with the imp rovement of ports. The paper is concerned with analysing the importance of port in global supply chain. The objective of the paper is to assess the various activities of port and how it has evolved to become one of the significant parts of logistics. Literature Research ... America, Africa and Middle East have demonstrated significant growths in import. The trade growth is higher than the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate. The progresses in global GDP and merchandise business have essentially impacted on the seaborne business and the demand for transportation services. In the year 2007, the cargos transported through ports were forecasted to be around 8.02 billion tonnes which is similar to the yearly growth rate of 4.8%. In transportation, tanker represented almost one third of international cargo transportation. In seaborne trade, Asia was in the leading position with 40% share subsequently America which accounted for 23% share in seaborne trade in 2007. The shares of Europe, Africa and Oceania were 18%, 10% and 9% respectively. These three regions represented almost 80% of total freights (Buck Consultants International, 2009). According to an estimation of UNCTAD, the global seaborne trade will grow by 44% by 2020 and 88% by 2030 encomp assing almost 11.5 billion tonnes and 16.04 billion tonnes correspondingly (Buck Consultants International, 2009). Dynamics of International Logistics Logistics is an activity which is liable for flow of materials. Usually, international logistics has been viewed as an integral part of commercial strategic planning. Logistics is considered as an unavoidable expense and appears within the boundaries of business. Organisations search for raw materials internationally in order to maintain low expenses. The expenses of logistics represent higher portion of sales. In present days, for several large multinational organisations, logistics expenses encompass more than 10% of sales revenue. These expenses are determined by internal as well as external aspects. Internally,

Music Essays | Traditional Irish Ireland

Music Essays | Traditional Irish Ireland Traditional Irish Ireland Before discussing the contexts behind the development of traditional Irish music and the resulting label, it is important to define what is actually meant by the label â€Å"traditional†. Naturally, as with most art forms the definition differs between performers/singers/writers. The prime factor though is typically having some note of age. As with much music labelled â€Å"traditional†, Irish music has much history behind it and the music we recognise today under this category takes its roots from a much older form of music. Many references to Irish/Celtic music have even been labelled as â€Å"ancient†. Again these terms alone would require an essay in themselves to define what the understanding of them is. As a historians definition of â€Å"ancient history† is a time before written records and communication it is almost impossible to determine how old certain cultures and their musical backgrounds are. Irish music could definitely fall into this discus sion although many would argue this to be even too old to be traditional and that the real traditional music of Ireland is the music of the harpists. A tradition that has all but died out in much of what we class as traditional Irish music today. In retrospective, the music which ran along side this music is equally as â€Å"traditional†. This is music which was played amongst the general community in Ireland, music which was played in houses and pubs. These were the places where many people could gather to play â€Å"amateur† music on instruments such as Fiddles, Pipes, Flutes and whistles, which at the time did not have the higher status of Harp players who in general played for the higher class of society. This is the music which has developed into what most consider as Irish traditional music today. In many respects, they are not wrong although it has been altered and developed in a way, which appeals to more people and could also be described as Irish â€Å"popular† music, yet another term that creates much discussion as to its true meanings. ‘Riverdance’ and ‘Lord of the Dance’ are prime examples of this. Although many would go as far as to say that they have no resemblance of Irish traditional music at all, this is the music that has become known as traditional and Irish. The story behind Riverdance especially, does bare some resemblance to life in Ireland in the 18th and 19th centuries. It revolves around the everyday life of Irish people and communities, and even the music does have strong connections to the music played at the time, although has been produced to appeal to a wider range of listeners and in particular, viewers. This leads me onto the History behind the music, and its impact on how the music developed to what is recognised today. The traditional music of Ireland dates back to medieval Europe. In early medieval period Ireland, was not a unified country but instead, broken into four families who shared equal rule of the country. This was also the cases in many countries of Medieval Europe. The people of Ireland were descended from many other cultures throughout Europe including England, Scotland, Wales, Gaelic Europe (France, Germany) and Scandinavia. It would seem though, that the music played today which we label as traditional emerged in the 1700’s. The 1700’s were a turbulent time for the Irish. This was the period when the old Gaelic aristocracy, who were for centuries the patrons of the poets and musicians of Ireland, were dispossessed of their influence and estates. The failure of the two Jacobite uprisings in Scotland marked the beginning of a period of intense persecution of Gaelic Scotland. It was at this time that the cultures of Gaelic Scotland and Gaelic Ireland were split apart, and henceforth regarded as separate entities. Up to this time, they had been considered to be a single culture. It could be argued that traditional Irish music is related to music found elsewhere in Europe. A lot of Irish musicians would agree that today there certainly is a relationship with the music of Scotland and the north of England. This indicates that such relationships may have existed earlier in history and possibly throughout the 1700’s. This makes it feasible to look to other countries in Europe for an idea on what was happening at the time. Equally, there is the argument that the Gaels had their own indigenously derived music, which was unique and not connected to what was going on anywhere else in Europe. Both points, I suspect are a little extreme and that the actual answer lies somewhere in between the two. One event separates us from having little or no knowledge whatsoever. In 1792 Edward Bunting, was hired to transcribe the music of a number of harpers who appeared at a festival in Belfast. This festival had been sponsored by an early example of what we now call the antiquarian movement. These were people who believed that Gaelic culture was being destroyed, and wanted to save it before it may be too late. One of the harpers who turned up in Belfast was Denis Hempson. He, as far as we know was the last living traditional Gaelic harpist, playing with fingernails on a wire-strung harp. All the other harpers, although their tunes were Irish, played gut-strung harps that were the same as those elsewhere in Europe, and their playing styles similarly were based on European styles. So its to the amazing determination of Hempson and the dedication of Bunting that we owe a large part of our knowledge about pre-1700s music in Ireland. However, we have to remember that this was all filtered through, first Hempson, and then, Bunting, who couldnt play the harp. Dance, of course now forms a large portion of what has become known as Irish traditional music. In Irish music, we wind up with a few traditional dance metres. The Hornpipe, the Jig and the Reel. Of course, these are widely considered to be the â€Å"big three† in terms of Irish traditional music. Others did and still do exist, as we know, the music from Ireland takes it’s roots from many other cultures in Europe, there is no exception with the forms of dance. Lets take reels first as they may be easiest to deal with. The typical statement is that The reel came to Ireland in the 1700-1800s from Scotland. This is based on the known fact that early Irish publications do not show very many reels compared to jigs and we also know that thanks to the co-existence of the Scottish patronage system and affordable publishing costs; there was an explosion of reel composition going on in Scotland at this time. Look at the current Irish reel repertoire and you will find it shot through with Scottish compositions. Personally I accept that the reel in Irish music owes an enduring debt to the Scottish tradition. The jig appears to have had a greater popularity in Ireland before the reel (which is very different to saying it is older than the reel). OFarrells 1804 collection (obviously derived on a repertoire from at least the late 1700s) features a good number of jigs, many of which are still actively played today. There are arguments for placing the slip jig as an older form. The Single Jig and Slide are timing emphasis variants of the double jig, and there is some evidence to show that they may have derived from the latter and thus be more recent. As for the double jig and its emergence in its modern form, this argument was carried out in a printed exchange between Breandà ¡n Breathnach and Declan Townsend in the early 1970s. The latter maintained that the rhythm derived from Carolans compositions of Gigas, the form of which he learned from the Italian composer Correlli. Townsend cited supporting evidence on the jig performance of Donegal fiddlers, which few today would support. The forme r, writing in the article Tà ºs an Poirt in Éireann (the origin of the jig in Ireland; appearing in Irish Folk Music Studies, Vol. 1) contests this and suggests amongst other things they may be based on older tunes such as clan marches which have had their speed altered slightly. In an English language summary, Breandan writes: The jig most probably came to Ireland from England, perhaps as early as the 16th Century. Native marches were adapted for dancing, some tunes borrowed from England and a start made on composing those tunes which constituted the greatest single division of the dance music until reels began to catch up on them in the second half of the last century. Certainly, I have discovered, by playing and listening to much â€Å"traditional† music from Ireland that I have found myself knowing the tune either in a different time signature, speed or a slightly altered form. Even to the extent of knowing words to the tune, which almost certainly are not Irish. Whether or not they were composed in England, Ireland or Scotland first, we do not know and I would not like to put forward a theory as to which it could possibly be. The hornpipes have been argued as a more recent arrival with some indications of England as a source. More recently it is being argued that this rhythm in particular has been popularly spread through publications with a respectable amount of evidence in the tradition to support this. The notion of the performance timing of the hornpipe-the question of dotted or un-dotted playing appears to be entirely a local matter based on the local dance tradition requirements. Its slower speed gives the player much more time to attempt more technically challenging performances of this type piece, thus the bunches of triplets and the difficult (flat) keys. As such hornpipes were sometimes played away from the dancing environment as a show of virtuosity. In an effort to establish virtuosity note reading players (usually the more formally trained and adapted to classical based techniques) were anxious to purchase books and learn new virtuoso hornpipes. Examples of this are the popularity of James Hi ll (a Lowland Scot who came to settle in Newcastle in the north of England), who certainly had a big impact on Irish fiddle playing up to today. As with all cultures, political and social changes within a community and in Ireland’s case, a whole country have a knock-on effect to all aspects of their traditions. In Ireland in the seventeenth century the pattern of society was changing drastically. The old patrons of poetry and music were exiled or reduced in power and wealth. The poorer Gaelic-speaking people had less to lose from the disruption of the older Irish society. They allied themselves to and intermarried with the English and Scottish settlers and formed the beginnings of a middle class, prosperous enough but lacking the cohesive traditions, grandeur and of pre-Cromwellian Ireland. We cannot be sure how much of the old truly Irish musical tradition survived the seventeenth century. Just as elaborate syllabic court poetry disappeared and simpler verse was composed, so it seems likely that much of the intricate high art of the earlier Irish harpers was lost. We know more about the Irish harpers of the eighteenth century than about any earlier players and it is obvious that their instruments, technique and musical style were subject to many non-Irish influences. Their repertoire consi sted mainly of tunes of Irish association, simply but movingly played on harps which retained enough of the tonal charm of the older Irish harp to have still a special character and quality. Judging from material published first in the eighteenth century, some of the tunes were probably very ancient, perhaps drawn from the old aristocratic repertory and from popular usage. A few were of Scottish, English or Italian derivation. But it is probable that the style of some of what we now consider traditional Irish music evolved in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries as a hybrid of largely unrecorded indigenous music and imported foreign styles. This phenomenon has been common enough in other art forms throughout Irish history. In conclusion it is apparent that much of what we know as Irish traditional music today actually still bares a strong resemblance to the music of the 17th, 18th and 19th century’s. Yes, there are also many features of that music which have been altered or all but died out in many parts but the fact that we know of them and recognise them as being the traditional music of Ireland at the time surely makes them the traditional music we recognise today. Its popularity today takes accreditation from the fact that it has been so widely spread throughout the world. The Napoleonic wars saw much of the Irish population join the British army fighting against the French in the latter 18th and early 19th century’s. This of course leads to the distribution of at least some of the music of Ireland throughout Napoleonic Spain, Portugal and France and of course much of Europe. Similarly, the spread of this music to America has had great influence on what we enjoy about Irish music. During the potato famine in Ireland, many upped sticks and left for North America. Now, in the 21st Century, what better way to advertise the popularity of anything, including music, than to have roots in what is one of the world’s superpowers? It is largely down to the commercialisation of the music today that it has reached such a high degree of popularity throughout the world. Of course it would seem that it takes most of its regard and recognition in the British Isles at it naturally holds historical and patriotic qualities, which of course makes anything holding these merits â€Å"popular†. â€Å"Traditional† Irish music is that of the people and communities of Ireland. Whether it is music composed 300 years ago which only exists through word of mouth, or the modern takes on this music introducing the popular world of rock and pop and merging the two di sciplines with each other. It is music which is played, written or sung to evoke a response about the country, however controversial it may sometimes be.

Ionic Bonds Essay

The periodic table is a masterpiece of organized chemical information. It is a table of the chemical elements in which the elements are arranged by order of atomic number. The standard form of the table includes periods (horizontal rows in the periodic table) and groups (vertical rows in the periodic table). Atoms are the basic building blocks of ordinary matter. Atoms are made up of particles called protons, electrons, and neutrons. Protons carry a positive electrical charge, electrons carry a negative electrical charge, and neutrons carry no electrical charge at all. The protons and neutrons come together in the central part of the atom, called the nucleus, and the electrons ‘orbit’ the nucleus in the electron cloud. An element is a substance that is made entirely from one type of atom. For example, the element hydrogen is made from atoms containing a single proton and a single electron. If you change the number of protons an atom has, you change the type of element it is. There are 117 different elements. According to the atomic model, electrons orbit the nucleus at specific levels, or shells. Electrons fill shells, starting from the innermost, going to the outermost. Electrons in the outermost shell, which are involved in bonding, are known as valence electrons. When many types of atoms come into contact with one another, electrons can be transferred from one atom to another thus creating an ion. An ion is an atom that has lost or gained an electron. Ions form because neutral atoms become charged by the losing or gaining an electron. An anion is created when one atom gains electrons. On the contrary, a cation is created when an atom loses electrons. The octet rule is a simple chemical rule that states that atoms tend to attract each other in such a way so that they each have eight electrons in their valence shells. The octet rule is applicable to the main-group elements, especially carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens (five nonmetal elements found in group 17 of the periodic table), but also the metals in the first two columns of the periodic table. In simple terms, the octet rule says that atoms are more stable when their outer shell is filled, and therefore, atoms will lose, gain, or share electrons to completely fill their outer shells. An Ionic compound is a bond between a positively charge molecules (cations) with a negatively charged molecules (anions). Ionic compounds are formed between a metal and a non-metal. The metal loses the valence electrons to the non-metal thus forming ionic bonds due to the attraction between the cations and the anions.